Karimajong grass thatched houses and kraals of cattel in the middle
Karamoja with the Karamajong also known as
Karamajong/Karimajong speaking people is
more than 1,000 metres above sea level, and four main mountains overlook the
region’s savannah, highlands and river valleys: Mount Morungole
in the north, Mount Moroto in the east, Mount Kadam
in the south and Mount Napak in the west. They have pastoral life
as well as the scarcity of rain, keeps people on the move and well dispersed. It
is no wonder that this amazing one of the sixty eight tribes in Uganda that
live in the dry area dedicate their pastoral economy with crop cultivation,
which is commonly practiced by women. Millet is their staple, but many people
also grow corn and peanuts. Grazing is done by men and grazing areas are common
ground outside the stockade, although milk cows sometimes stay near the
homestead. During the driest months, usually February and March, cattle are
moved to seasonal camps or to areas of water and grass a distance from the homestead.
In these areas, men live almost entirely on milk and blood drawn from live
cattle, and, occasionally, meat. In the homestead, women, children, and old
people forage for food, including flying ants, if stores of grain are depleted.
In very lean times, milk is reserved for children and calves before adults. Tobacco is grown within the stockade that surrounds
most homesteads. The homestead is usually a circular configuration, and within
this enclosure, each married woman has a house built of mud and brushwood walls
with a thatched roof and it is more likely that if you visit this area, you
find women building houses even on top of roofs thatching their roofs. The
center of this is a cattle kraal, usually with only one opening to the outside
.
A akaramajong woman practising a caltural dancing
Oh the pearl of Africa that welcomes everybody
to enjoy a tour exploring the life of
Karamojong that has a unique marriage which is polygamous with the
number of wives is being limited solely by financial circumstances. After
marriage, Wives live in their husband's homestead. Each wife has a separate,
small house that serves as a kitchen, and some women also cultivate plots of
ground several hours' walk away from their homes. Men were traditionally
scornful of widowers and old men who cared for their own gardens, but after
plows were introduced in the 1950s and farming became more financially
rewarding, many young men claimed plots of ground for their own use and hired
women to work in them. No boy is allowed to marry until he is
admitted by the elders to the status of manhood. Up to this time a boy must
pluck out all his pubic hair. When the time comes (usually as one of the
groups) his father gives him a bull, which the boy kills sharing it with his
male relatives. Smearing himself with dang from the entrails and gives his
mother the head, neck, hump, stomach, and ribs. His hair is cut by an adult
male friend, leaving a tuft at the back to which a shot string is attached.
Traditionally, when the hair grows back, he moulds it into two buns, one on top
of the head and one at the back with coloured clay.
In attaining manhood, he may seek a wife. It is usual that he will already have
at least one lover and if his father approves his lover may be taken as his
wife. When a woman is about to give birth she is assisted by her
female relatives. The umbilical cord is tied with fiber and cut near to
the body. If the baby is a boy the cord is cut with the arrow used for bleeding
cattle but if it is a girl, a knife is used. The cord is buried in the cattle
enclosure.
When someone dies, the body is wrapped up in a hide and buried in a goat
enclosure. If the person is pauper without friends the body is simply thrown
outside the kraal and left to the wild animals.
When a husband dies the widow passes into the possession of his principal
brother. He will then kill, and, they will smear themselves with dung from its
entrails. From this time onwards she belongs to him. If there is no brother
then she will pass to the son of a co-wife.
The karamajong language, Nga karamojong, is complicated and subtle.
Oh what an amazing
tribe, I wish i was a Karamojong but then what an amazing tribe is mine also??
More than athird of the earths million square miles of land is covered by forests or is capable of supporting forests. However, these forests lands are un equally distributed among the continents and even within different areas of the same continent. Although the most prominent features of the forests are its trees and shrubs, aforest is must more than such woody vegetation. Forest is acomplex closely knit commonly or ecological system which is map aliving environment and a non living environment of which aliving environment includes all plants and animals in addition to shrubs and trees.
In atypical forest, these include ; habicous plants,mosses, lichens, bacteria, birds, insects,spinners, and knits. In most forests, there are several layers or stratas of folliage formed by plants of different heights and different classification like tropical forest and lowland forest. Often they are described as ever green if the tree bears green leaves throughout the year. In adecidous forest, the leaves fall at the onset of the cold or dry season and the trees are without foliage for aperiod of several weeks or months. Some forests incliude oak forests (encirials) in the south west, are composed of trees that rose off their old leaves and develop new leaves in the period of a new week in spring. Such forests may be determined as sem decidous or sem evergreen. They may also be described as open or closed. In an open, the tree crowns generally do not touch or overlap, and the canopy, therefore forest have more or less continous canopies formed by interlocking or overlapping the tree crowns.
However, they are affected by both human activities such as lumbering that is mostly common in tropical forests with nice logs, overgrazing due to population increase, settlements that has covered most of the forests through encroachment, and natural activities such as wild fires and vulcanicity. According to conservation plan (2003), hunting has an indirect ipact on chimpanzees , gorillas and other primates through the use of snares or jaw trapped by hunters. Most of these snares sre made by wires so as these chimpanzees, gorillas and other primates walk through the forest, their hands or feet may become trapped in the snares. In two of the forests where chimpanzees are studied (kibale and budongo forests), researchers have observed up to 25% of chimpanzees with snares related injuries. They have also found out that chimpanzees with injuries to upper lips experienced snares limitation in both dexterity and control while processing foods foristance; figs, the majopr food resources or their diet. Chimpanzees with their injuries appears to show remarkable compensation in feeding abilities, but there is a concern for the ability of individuals to survive under extreme compensation. According to Keller et al (2001) reports show that growth in human population arround natural forest, the demand for more agricultural and the increase in land use activities have exerted pressure on tropical forests whose tree cover, species composition and structure have changed over the past decades.
However as forests is a global consern, Tree planting should be part of the governnment's poverrty allleviation efforts as there is alot from tree farming in any case people have the by law regarding tree plantation. This is due to the fact that, trees plays a big role forinstance; In water catchment, binding soil cover, infrustuctural developement, power generation from bunning charcoal, act as a home animals and birds such as primates, antelopes, reptles and turracos, weaver birds, respectively.
It offers top quality services, which both
surprise and excite the tourists who come to relax, Adventure or explore
the natural and cultural beauty of Africa. It synonymous with all that
is best in travel and quality guiding experiences to all destinations according to the interest of the tourists.
It focuses
on specialized tourist activities like game viewing and bird watching
and many others around the country while using expert professionals in
the art and science of wild life guiding and guides are embedded with
trust and openness that explains our overall service delivery right from
they time they meet with you.
Crossed
by the Equator and perched on the northern shores of Lake Victoria,
Uganda is one of the most alluring cultural safari destinations in
Africa. Uganda’s population is estimated to be 33 million people and is
made up of complex and diverse range of tribes with the majority (98%)
being Africans who fall into 4 major ethnic groups; Bantu, Nile Hamites,
Nilotic and Hamite groups.
Beautiful rock that was a result of earth movements and has spiritual powers
Lake Kyoga forms the northern boundary
for the Bantu speaking peoples, who dominate much of East, Central and
Southern Africa with the Buganda taking the biggest percentage. Most of
the Bantu speaking people formed their own kingdoms forexample; Buganda, Busoga,
Bunyoro, Ankole and Tooro. Before the coming of the British these
kingdoms were organized political settings with Buganda having the most
civilized and highly centralized monarchy. In the north live the Lango
(near Lake Kyoga) and the Acholi (towards the Sudanese border) who speak
Nilotic languages. To the east are the Iteso and Karamajong who are
related to the Masai pastoralists of Kenya. In the forests of the west
live the Batwa, a pygmy related tribe thought to originate from Congo.
Uganda's
Kingdoms present a rich cultural heritage that Uganda proudly boosts
over other safari destinations in Africa. While on a cultural safari,
you can take tours to the King's Palaces, royal tombs, royal senates as
well as other historical sites revered by the local people. Some natural
landforms and rivers also have great cultural attributes with some
being believed to be borne by humans! While on your Uganda Safari, you
cannot have any feel of being unsecure. Ugandans are very polite,
enthusiastic, friendly and welcoming people who will often greet
strangers on public transport or in rural areas. It is always not a
simple “hello” but also how are you? How is your family? And the
interest is genuine. Its Safaris campanies organizes a number of safaris
that can take you to Uganda's major cultural and historical sites such
as Kasubi tombs, Namugongo martyrs shrine, Sezibwa Falls – river
believed to be human born with a Twin Brother, Buganda, Bunyoro and Toro
Kingdom tours and so much more.
Be it one day, three days or more
you can still experience part of this culture with us.
Local people harvesting tea
Being the pearl of Africa it offers top range Wildlife experience in the world. Its exciting safaris and tours into the deep wilds of EAST AFRICA.The only country that have compitent, trained, kind, and professional guides who are passionate about wildlife safaris (game drive), cultural safaris,Sport fishing,Boating, Game Viewing,Walking and trekking, Mountaineering,White water rafting, national Parks Bird watching safaris, Photo safaris, primate tracking Gorilla tracking safaris, chimpanzee tracking, Tailor made tours, Holidays and volunteer trips, Educational and student trips. The tour or safari companies provide some one with unforgettable wildlife experiences with excellent and very knowledgeable guides, custom designed four-wheel drive vehicles, and the type of accommodation you want, from camping to medium and luxurious. It has dedicated team with combined experience especially in the field of tourism, guiding, customer care and conservation and offer services which are unforgettable to tourists with excellent results and comments. Field guides are knowledgeable and speak Foreignand the local languages. Try Uganda and feel the world.
The occurrence of to different morphological forms in specie distinguishes males from females. In birds having domestic chicken as forexample. The to forms are the rooster and the hen .In wild birds, sexual dimorphism is well marked during the breeding season particularly in birds belonging to the order-Passeriformes most distinguishing cheracter is the primate normally in dull color. Two very bright color including exaggerated growth of certain parts of the plumage certain species of birds do not exhibited sexual dimorphism .This is particularly true with bad specie which is monogamous. Mating system
It can be described as partners of sexual and social relationships resulting in mating between male and female individuals. In animals, they are three mating systems that have been recognized namely;
Monogamy
Polygamy
Promiscuity
In birds, they similarity is as follows; Monogamy; This is a system in which males and females mate with one partner only during breeding season. This is the most common mating system among birds and 90% of bird’s species.
The existence of this behavior could be due to extensive care of chicks by both parents.
Eggs have to be consistently in incubated and defended against predators.
Chicks require warmth, protection, and continual feeding
In other birds e.g. some African hornbills, parental roles may be performed by different parents.
The nest is built in deep hole within a tree. The female Wales herself inside crevice living are small hole for male to pass food for her the situation persists until the chicks are hatched and grow. Some birds maintain stable pair bonds several years and sometimes for life forexample. crested crane and Egyptian gees. Polygamy. Here an individual of one sex males with several members of opposite sex
Polygamy can also be divided in two different subsystem of mating Polygny; is a system in which a male meets with several females but it is not widely exhibited in birds.
In birds ,good example are found in the situation .The Males acquire territories up on which many females came to mate with the terrestrials males forexample, the seed eating birds of Africa form territories during breeding season’s like; Pin tailed whydah, paradise whydah and the bishop males demarked and defend territories in to which females are attracted to meet with the males. Polyandry. This is the mating system in which a female meets with several males.
In birds the mating systems males
In birds the best sturdy is found in American jacana. A bird similar in morphology in African jacana both belonging to the family jacanae. Female defend large territories which are sub divided in two smaller territories .Each similar territory is in turn defended by a male. Female move from one territory to another for mating with males in these smaller territories and laying eggs. Eggs are entirely incubated by a male defending that smaller territory. Polyandry females are normally larger in size than their male counter parts. Promiscuity. This occurs in these species which come together only for copulation and then see no more of each other .Previously forexample, have been in relation family of trochilidae of recent, however, the term is now largely disused in refer ice to the animals except to it human connotation which is considered in a appropriate to other animals.
Note: Animals (man excluded) normally mate when females are reproductively respected to men i.e. during estrous/when in heat which is not the case with man and debit who breed thought the year.
Their scientific names is called Pan Troglodytes and are
related to humans with about 98% (percent) DNA same as human living in the
rainforest areas and woodland of West and Central Africa. The male chimpanzee weighs
35 to 70 kilograms, and a female weighs 26 to 50 kilograms. The height is up to
1.2 metres and the female is under a metre.
The alpha male is the leader of the family group and females
have a baby at 12 year with a gestation period of nine (9) months. It has a life
span of 40 years in the wild and up to 60 years in captivity.
They are the most intelligent Apes where sometimes they make
Umbrella from large leaves whereby they cover themselves from heavy rains and sunshine.
They do also make tools for example; they strip leaves off a thin branch, put
the stick into a termite mound and after pull it out when it is covered with
tasty termites; they use tools to crack nuts however this takes a lot of
practice to use a rock to crack open a nut.
There intelligence explains how they do groom each other
every day by carefully inspect each other’s hair and skin to keep it clean,
carrying their young ones on their bucks, play and wrestle together and have
great fun chasing each other, love to be tickled
There hearing, sight, smells, taste and touch are similar to
humans. Chimpanzees make sleeping nests at night whereby they bend over
branches and put leafy twigs under their heads to make a comfortable bed to
sleep on. Communication in chimpazee is by soft grunts, barks, scream
and paint hoots. They can be hard for a distance of three kilometers through
the forest when there is danger and one can tell by their faces when they are
happy, sad, surprised or even angry
They are called knuckle-walkers
because they use their knuckles for support when walking. And posses opposable big
toes. Their arms are longer than the legs and can also walk upright.
They are threatened with extinction. 100 years ago there
were about one million chimpanzees. Fewer than 200000 chimpanzees now survive
in the wild.
Uganda known as the home of mountain gorillas is located in East Africa neighboring Kenya in the East and Tanzania in the South.Uganda is well known as one of the tourist destinations in the Africa and the whole world just because of its mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, Elephants, lions, Leopards, buffaloes,more than 1031 bird species with beautiful melodies in different habitats like the rare shoe bill, culture, water bodies, mountains, landscapes, hot springs. Its nature endowment and safari attractions has been awarded with a ‘The pearl of Africa' unlike other countries. Uganda is a beautiful country, only recently discovered as a top safari destination with mountain gorilla safaris as the leading attraction in the country.
Book a Uganda safari with East African Expeditions and find out the safari attraction the country has to offer.
Mountain Rwenzori the highest mountain-range of Africa, Lake Victoria the largest lake,the great savannas of Kenya and Tanzania and the vast tropical rainforests of DR Congo and Rwanda. Uganda offers the best, right from the moment you land at the International Air port (Entebbe) with views of Lake Victoria. Uganda is where the East Savannah meets the West African Jungle. Animals to observe in the impossibly lush country include, mountain gorilla safaris in Bwindi, Primates safaris, Birding safaris, Monkeys (Black and White Colobus Monkeys, Red-tailed Monkeys, Patas Monkeys, Blue Monkeys), Elephants, Lions, Buffaloes, Leopards, Giraffes, Zebras, Hyenas, Warthogs, Hippos Crocodiles and many more.
There is more to see in Uganda than wildlife and culture safaris: The source of the mighty Nile alluded to hazily in the ancient writing of Ptolemy with white water rafting as the leading safari adventure attraction in Jinja and bungee jumping. The leading safari parks are:-Murchison falls as the largest protected area for wildlife and game viewing safaris with its palm –studded grass land supporting dense lion population, Uganda kob, giraffes, pattas Monkeys, chimpanzee and other wild animals. Queen Elizabeth National park safari offering prime grazing to buffalo, antelopes, elephants, bird species on Kazinga channel, and other mammals like the jiang hogs, tree climbing lion safaris. There are the snow-capped mountains of the Rwenzori, and the Virunga Volcanoes and Mount Elgon, both with a lot of hiking opportunities through beautiful scenery. Uganda has a few beautiful big lakes like Lake Victoria and Lake Bunyonyi. And apart from that, Uganda has the reputation as ‘Africa's Friendliest Country', with the tradition of hospitality and a remarkably low level of crime and hassle directed at tourists. The official language of Uganda is English and the currency is Ugandan Shilling (USh). The land is 236.580 sq. kilometers, with a population of 33 million.
Uganda is a tropical country and much of it lies on the African plateau between 900-1,500 meters above sea level. This gives Uganda a nice tropical climate, with temperatures averaging between 21 and 27 degrees Celsius during the day and between 12 and 18 degrees Celsius at night. The hottest months are from December to February, with 27 to 29 degrees Celsius. The rainy seasons are from April to May and October to November.
Uganda is well watered and fertile; almost 25% of the country is covered with water. Lake Victoria is shared by Uganda with Kenya and Tanzania. Lake Albert, Lake Edward and Lake George lie on the border with Congo (DRC). At Jinja, Owen Falls is regarded as the source of the Nile. Uganda's reputation as the "Africa's Friendliest country" stems partly from the tradition of hospitality common to its culturally diverse populace, and partly from the remarkably low level of crime and hassle directed at tourists in Uganda.
It is in the mouth or buccal cavity where food is tone, cut and nibbled
& grind to smaller particles before being swallowed.
The soft part of the mouth or buccal cavity is also well supplied with
relatively small mucus gland which helps to moistly and lubricate the food be4
swallowing.
Oesophagus It is more less a muscular tube w/c convey the flood from the mouth to the
crop. Its size depends on the type of food eaten.
It is also provided mucus glands which affords the food to pass smoothly from
the mouth to crop.
The crop In many birds, the posterior end of the oesophagus becomes enlarged into a
storage chamber known as a crop. Here, food is stored until a stomach can
accommodate.
In pigeons, the crop is very dev’d and it is here that “pigeon milk” is
secreted to feed the young. Pigeon milk is a large substance rich in fats and
proteins. The substance is mixed with food in the crop and then regurgitated
into the mouth of the young bird. Crops are generally prominent in grain eaters
like game birds and pigeons.
They permit the owner to gather and swallow food in a hurry way, thus
shortening their exposure to their enemies.
The same thing is true with the ruminates where the rumen is the food
storage chamber. The difference between crop and rumen is that; in the crop the
food is not regurgitated back in the mouth fore recuing and reswallowing. Crop
also permits hard seeds to be softened with mucus be4 further digestion in the
stomach and intestines. No digestive gland is known exist in the walls of the
crop.
Stomach The stomach of bird is divided into two distinct functional organs. There
is the interior soft and glandular stomach also known as proventiculus and
repostilier. Muscular stomach known as the gizzard
PROVENTRICULUS OR GLANDULAR STOMACH.
This is an organ which evolved after the evolution of birds. It is not found
in reptiles. The stomach is well supplied with peptic enzymes that digest protein
foods. The secretion is also highly acidic and therefore able to desolve large
bones. The proventiculusare glandular stomach is more developed among meet esters
that plant and seed eaters.
THE GIZZARD OR MOSCULAR STOMACH
It is a Rotarian trait. I.e. it is also found in reptiles. The gizzard is
some time known as the “grinding stone”. It normally posses grits or small
stones (swallowed by birds) which helps to crush or digest seeds and other plant
materials and as would be expected the gizzard is more dev’d amongst seed and
plant eater that meat eaters.
The following are figures which show considerable force generated by a
compressive walls of gizzard as formed in different birds. Force is expressed
in millimeters of mercury.
Hen has 100-150mm
Ducks has 180mm
Goose has 265-280mm
Turkey has been known to grind 12 steel niddles to pieces in 36hrs and 16
surgical linnets to pieces in 16 hrs.
A huge of sheet iron that could be only bent under a load of 36kg was
flattened and partly rolled within 24hrs.
The gizzard is also found amongst carnivorous birds spp but here its
function seems to act as a troupe that prevent sharp bones and undigestable
things from proceeding down in digestive system such resist them may be rolled
up into elongated pellet and rig agitated by mouth.
THE LIVER The liver of a bird is a to logged structure. It is the largest gland in the
body and it is larger in birds than in mammals of comparable size and is also
somewhat in lager in fish and insect eater than in meat and grain eaters.
Basically the liver in birds has the same function as in mammals such
function are;
To store excess sugar
To manufacture bile
To synthesis certain proteins from amino acids
To excrete waste products
Stores vitamins and minerals
Dicrofy poison
Supplies quick energy to the body and by using sugar into the body
As regards the secretion of water products from the blood it is
worthy to note that 60% of the uric acid, which is achieved nitrogenous pdts of
birds, is found in the liver and excreted in kidney.
Together with other waste products, the kidneys pass on uric acid to the
cloaca to final digestion outer the body.
PANCREAS like the liver, pancreas is larger in birds tan in mammals of comparable
size. It’s also larger among fish, insects and grain eaters than meat eaters.
The 1 degree function of pancreas is to produce or secrete digestive enzymes
which act on all three types of food like fats, Cabohydrates and protein.
INTESTINE it is chief organ of digestion and absorption of food. In birds, the organ
is not sharply differentiated into regions as in mammals.
A reptilian x-tic in intestines of birds is longitudinal muscle found on
the outside walls of the intestines as opposed to mammals whose intestinal
longitudinal muscles are found inside the walls of the intestines.
Among related spp, large birds are required to absorb more nutrients in
order to survive and a longer intestine provides the necessary required volume
for digestion and absorption of food. Doubling linear dimension of an object
increases the volume by 8 times. Relatively the smaller intestines are found in
grain eaters than in other birds. This is because grain eaters take more solid
food and therefore need more space for its digestion and absorption.
CAECA The main function is absorption water and digested proteins, and particular
the bacterial decomposition of crude fibrous. The undigested matter in the
caeca is dark and moist and is discharged separately in a whitish dinner
intestinal feeces. In domestic hen there is one caeca discharge for a bit a very
intestinal defecation.
CLOACA A cavity in birds & reptiles in w/c the intestinal & urinary ducts
in terminate. The cloaca is found at the end of the intestinal canal & its
divided in2 3 regions.
·Coprodacum Interior regions w/c
receives excrements in the intestines.
·Urodacum Middle region w/c
receives discharges of the kidney through the ureters and of the gentle organs
through the vas deferens/oviduct.
·Proctolaeum Posterior or
terminal regions and is suplied with powerful ejection muscles. It’s closed
posterior by the muscular anus. Its main function is to store the excrements
before final discharge.
ADAPTION OF BIRDS FOR FLIGHT
In order 2 conquer the air, birds have evolved features adapted 4 flight.
The adaptations are not confined 2 birds a lone but also 2 bats, flying
squirrels etc. however when it comes 2 sustained flying, birds are considered
true flyers.
Features adapted 4 flight
Uniformity in body size plus architecture. In general birds have a union
body size i.e. the difference btn the smallest the smallest the largest bird is
considerably smaller than the difference btn the smallest & largest
mammals. Example of body size uniformity.
Spp
wf/1
Ratio (largest Vs smallest)
Ostrich
144kg
{ 1:64.000}
Humming birds
2225g {
1:64.000}
Blue whale
190000kg
{1:82600000}
Plggmy shrew
2.3g
{1:82600000}
Weight reducing adaptation Compared the reptiles & mammals, bones, of
birds are much higher. Some of the weight decreasing adaptation are as follows.
Skeleton Greatly reduced in weight compared 2 mammals or reptiles of comparable size
e.g. the skeleton and all other bones of a 7kg pelican weighs 0.6kg or 9.3% of
the total body weight of the bird.
A pigeon’s skeleton accounts for 4.4% body weight whereas compared to a
rat, the skeleton accounts 4 5.6% of the total body weight. It reduced long
tail 2 4m stunted pygostyle.
·Bird’s hand (wings) finger bones are decreased
both in size and No’s where by fingers are missing plus 2 of the remaining 3
fingers are fused.
·Absence of teeth
·Sternum is thin & keeled there by greatly
decreased in weight.
·Bones of birds are hollow hence greatly reduced
the heavier.
Light feathers: presence of feathers has replaced the heavier
scale and scutes found in reptiles.
Air sacs presence of air sacs which are branched all throughout the body&
penetrating the hallow bones. The air sacs and the feathers are responsible for
reducing the specific gravity of flying birds. The specific gravity of
feathered duck is 0.6 compared 21.0in most vertebrates.
Excretory system Absence of urinary bladder & urethra 2 hold
and discharge urine. The kidney exploit nitrogenous waste concentrated in 4m of
uric acid w/c passes directly through the cloaca whose walls further absorb
more H2O. The wastes pass 2gether with those of the intestines in
the form of conc white guano.
Reproductive system Birds don’t give birth to live young ones and not
carry to unborn baby inside the body. Female spp of birds don’t contain one
function ovary and oviduct (the left). The right ovary is normally atrophical
and doesn’t develop for reproduction. Eggs are laid outside and the development
of young occurs outside the body of the mother. Both ovaries and tests are
atrophy during non breeding season. It has been found that sex organs of
starlings weigh about 1500 times more during the breeding season compared 2 the
non breeding season.
Body glands Except uropygial gland (oil gland), Glands are generally absent in birds.
